The opening words are crucial in any piece of writing. It is here that you reveal to the readers the nature of your essay, letter, news article, or other composition. The opening words announce the content and set the style for what follows. Often, the opening words serve to catch the readers' attention and pique their interest.

Occasionally, in academic papers, a writer may open with something like this: "In this paper, I argue that..." This is certainly a clear way to set forth your argument, but it is also rather heavy-handed. Writers with a sense of style avoid this tactic. Among the many alternative openings are the following: 

1. A factual statement providing background information and announcing the topic.
2. A colorful anecdote that leads directly to your main point.
3. Some unusual fact or declaration that will startle your reader.
4. A statement of the logical premise from which you will develop your argument.

"During the latter part of the 1800's and the beginning of the 20th century, the United States experienced an influx of immigration the likes of which it had never seen before."

"Family and friends from the same country banded together to take on the `new world.' Certain groups, however, took advantage of the many new opportunities. The undertaking was both a chance for co-operation and an opportunity for personal gain."

1. Don't make unsupported, sweeping statements. Here is an example, paraphrased from a student's paper: "Throughout history, women have always been oppressed."  This is a weak start, partly because it falsely implies that the student is omniscient, and partly because it is debatable. Here's another: "In every age, people have always struggled to find food, shelter, love, money, and security." It's hard to dispute this, except for the part about money, but so what?
2. Similarly, avoid opening with a vague statement that gives no indication of what the paper is about.  Here's one example, taken verbatim from a paper: "Change is an inevitable thing. Nothing can stay the same forever." This is almost completely meaningless. The student should cut such obvious padding and get to the point.

The most important part of the introduction is the thesis statement, which is typically the last sentence of the first paragraph. In fact, this is the most important part of the entire paper. The thesis statement should state your main point -- the essence of your interpretative argument -- as clearly and concisely as possible. Everything in your paper should contribute to explaining, developing, qualifying and supporting your interpretation.

Thesis statements should indicate your central point, not just your topic. Here are two examples of thesis statements that appeared in essays on the lives of urban working people in the 1800s.

1. Weak: "In this paper I will try to analyze aspects of urban life such as migration, employment, income, housing and sanitation." 

(This statement indicates the content of the essay, but fails to indicate the writer's interpretation of the issues under consideration.)
 
2. Better: "Industrialization created new employment opportunities for unskilled workers, drastically altered the employer-employee relationship, and established a new social class system."

(This thesis more specifically indicates the point of the paper.)

The body of your paper should be composed of logically-constructed paragraphs -- small units, each more or less self contained, each contributing some new idea in support of the main point of the essay.

Paragraphs should hold together. The margin break (the indentation that starts a new paragraph) alerts the reader to a significant shift from the content of the previous paragraph. The sentences clustered together in the new paragraph are presumed to have something in common with one another, and to be somehow different from the preceding material. If you include two major points in the same paragraph, your reader naturally assumes that the points are closely related. However, this assumption can be a problem if you want your reader to consider the two points separately and carefully. One way to alert your reader to the distinction is to separate the two points into distinct paragraphs. However, excessively short paragraphs can interrupt the flow of your argument and make your writing seem choppy and disconnected. There is no simple way to resolve this tension between clarity and flow -- to some extent, it's a matter of personal taste.

Well-constructed paragraphs are often headed by strong topic sentences. A topic sentence spells out the main idea of the paragraph. By writing topic sentences, you force yourself to focus your thought, and you help your reader to follow your argument. Typically, a topic sentence comes at the beginning of a paragraph, followed by sentences that clarify, illustrate or support it. The topic sentence thus serves the same function for the paragraph that the introduction serves for the essay as a whole. Here is an example taken from another student essay. The topic sentence is in bold-face:

"Outside of family obligation and responsibility, money was the main source of concern for most immigrants. Not only was it the tool vital to survival in America, it also provided the means by which one could [escape] from poverty and assimilate into the coveted realm of the upper class. Money `was the secular God of the new metropolis, the calling card that enabled progress to be purchased.'(Ewen 23). Possessing it meant that one could sever ties with the slums...."

Transitional phrases can also improve the flow of ideas within a paragraph. Transitional words and phrases show the nature of the relation between different points. For example, such words and phrases can include meanwhile, as a result, nevertheless, in other words, first, afterwards, similarly, in contrast, for this reason, furthermore, on the other hand, and for example.

By the time you reach your conclusion, you should have stated all the points necessary to explain your argument, and you should have provided all the evidence needed to support it. So what remains to be done in the conclusion? Typically, the conclusion restates the thesis in order to remind the reader of what the essay has proven. The conclusion may also briefly restate some of the major points or pieces of evidence. Another common, and particularly effective, use of the conclusion is to expand on the significance of the argument -- in other words, to explain why the essay's interpretation is important or to connect the issue with broader historical developments. Occasionally, a writer may conclude with a colorful anecdote that vividly illustrates the essence of the entire argument. However, if you have absolutely nothing to say after restating your thesis, don't ramble on aimlessly; just stop as quickly and gracefully as you can.